Who influences foreign policy in U.S.? It is a debatable issue that what the role of presidency in foreign policy is? Many commentators might have different answers to this question: Do presidents act as chief architects or general contractors when they formulate foreign policy? The answers of these commentators to this question depend on who and when they talk about. For instance, do they talk about the post-Cold War era or the post-September 11th era? Do they talk about Eisenhower and Reagan or William J. Clinton and George W. Bush? Jacobs and I. Page in their article believe that many actors influence U.S. foreign policy such as experts, “epistemic communities”, organized interests (especially business and labor), and ordinary citizens or “public opinion”. But they focus on business leaders, and argue that they run American foreign policy. I think over long periods, the involvement of the public in planning or implementation of foreign policy has been quite marginal. The United States is a business-run society. The political parties and power have reflected business interests for a long time. One version of this view that has a lot of power behind it is that the foreign policy is controlled by coalitions of investors who join together around some common interest. Some neoliberal analysts argue that business corporations exert specific influence on foreign policy of United States. These influences are causes of the business corporations’ effects on the economy and their ability to provoke American electorates to punish the incumbent political party. The fast domestic movement of capital that leads to create an open world economy from 1970s has increased pressure on the state to tailor foreign policy to please business. Businesses try to maximize profit, power, market share and control over the state on making foreign policy. If we think inside this paradigm, we conclude that the presidency in the United States toward foreign policy is under dominant of organized interests especially business. So the answer to the first question is that the presidents in the United States do not act as a chief architects but they act as general contractors.

Social Stratification

Sociologists have many theoretical approaches about social stratification. Giddens (1992) distinguishes four systems of stratification: Slavery, caste, estates and class. We can find two kinds of slavery in societies: In one way slaves were considered as chattels and were property of their masters; in other form slaves were used as workers and servants. In the Castes systems, hard segregation between groups exists. One group is in the highest degree and has most purity; and other groups are located in lowest degrees. Estates can be found in societies that some differences are established by law among people. Social classes have some differences from other systems of stratifications. The base of difference in the class is economic situation. The most theories of social stratification belong to Karl Marx and Max Weber. For Marx a class is a group of people who stand in a common relationship to the means of production. (Giddens1992). Marx believes that the base of inequality among individuals in modern societies is economy. Weber argues that status is more influential than economic condition. According to Stuart Hall today in societies class isn't only determiner and some other respect like (gender, nation, religion, age) can also be considered important In America American certain values, specifically private property, free market and more profitability cause different economic conditions in the society. In America and in any historical era there were not clear social classes. Nowadays most of people are middle classes. In America despite this concept that "anybody works hard can achieve more reward", minorities and some groups can't move up of opportunities ladder. Many people in America live under poverty-line. At 1993 one-fifth of richest people got 44 percent of incomes, versus three-fifth of poorest persons got 30 percent of all incomes. (census.gov) A person, who is born in a rich and powerful family, has a fixed condition in hierarchical system. This person is born in social class of his or her parents. We can say that despite of American Dream in America, merely those people who are born in high classes inherit the class of their parents. In "Schooling and Capitalist America" Bowels and Gintis stress that educational system in America trains people their conditions and legitimize the existing inequality: Schools categorize students in educational and academic ways and this categorizing, finally distribute them in jobs and economic systems. The media in America ignores equality and social justice and supports existing inequality and lack of social justice by magnifying institutions and American certain values. In 1995, 10 percent of richest population in the US possessed of 68 percent of whole wealth. In fact, in 1986, one percent of the richer populations were possessor of 42 percent of whole wealth. These statistics show that a great deal of the whole wealth in the United States is transporting from hands to hands of the rich people. It seems that there exits a trend that increases differences of wealth; for instance in 20 years between 1963 and 1983, the average wealth of 10 percent of the richest increased 147 percent. (American congress, 1986) Reference: Charon, Joel , M. (1997). Ten Questions: A Sociological Perspective, Wadsworth company

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Book Review

Review of American society today

"American society today" is a book which was written in 8 chapters in English by Edward Ashbee.He is the head of Social Studies at Denstone College, Staffordshire. Ashbee is also the co-author of US Politics Today and The Politics Today Companion to American Government. The book was published by Manchester University Press in 160 pages, paperback with ISBN 07190 6022 2 in 2002 in Manchester and New York. This book can be considered as a basic work which presents complete and basic knowledge about American society and can be suggested to those who want to know about different aspects of American society. The language of the book is not complicated; also the tables and extra information in the silver bulks helps the readers to understand more about the intention of the writer. American society today tries to define the features of contemporary American society and it provides an introduction to the US for students of American Studies, politics and sociology, as well as general readers. The book follows with the points to perform different images of the US-especially in the 1980s - in the mind of Europeans. He also writes about "Some of the cruder Representations" of the US which has been subsequently modified. Television channels with different programs about the American life were empathetic across the world to the events of September 11, 2001. The book starts its description from Europe; the popular representation of the US often falls back upon crude caricature. Although there is admiration on the country's resources as well as it's technological and economic capabilities, US society and the American character have won few sympathetic portrayals in Britain indeed and there has long been a degree of latent hostility to the US that is shared by both right and left parties. In particular historical moments, it has become manifest. Later in the book there are other examples: "Martin Carthy, the celebrated English folk musician, received some widely shared sentiments. In one of his songs he lampooned the US, citing its 'stone age finesse', ' Neanderthal pride', corrupt self-serving politicians and instinctive imperialism" After these descriptions the book attempts to construct a counterweight to these by considering the defining features of American society in a balanced way. This book has been written in 8 chapters: American exceptionalism - the American dream and the modern economy - individualism and conformity - communities, civic decline and "bowling alone" - the family, sex and sexuality - race, ethnicity, and "balkanization" - one nation indivisible: the American regions - conclusion: September 11, and its aftermath. Chapter 1 examines the distinctive character of American society and the ways in which it can be considered exceptional. This chapter contains several subtitles like "The melting pot", "a fragment culture", "The American creed", "The exceptionalism of America's national purpose", try to conceptualize the term of exceptionalism. In this chapter the writer expresses that the US followed a separate and distinct path of development and there are, however, different ways of understanding American exceptionalism. He also writes: "Some have cited the character of the American people and the role or the ' melting pot'. Others stress the role of the westward frontier in shaping the American character, the class origins of the American colonies and the absence of a mass socialist party." In chapter 2 the author stresses the concept of the nature of the "American dream", its promise of upward mobility, and the nature of the contemporary American economy. He also points it out that there is conflicting empirical evidence and much of the data suggests that the rates of mobility are limited, particularly for women and minorities: " .... The unequal distribution of income and wealth has considerable significance. Actually, there are many talks on the underclass and over class. While some hailed the new economy of the late 1990s as a revolutionary shift in the character of economic opportunities, the claims were often exaggerated...." The writer also tries to justify his claims through some tables with statistical information. The concept of the characteristics of American individualism is the main topic of chapter 3. According to the subjects which are debated in this section, American individualism traditionally incorporated notions of freedom and a willingness to confront established order. Although these still find a place in popular culture, there have been recurrent fears that individualism is being suppressed by modernization. The extent to which American identity also rests upon attachments to family, neighborhood and nation forms the matter of chapter 4. Alongside individualism, individuals have traditionally had ties binding them to their families, neighborhoods and the US itself. In the beginning of this Chapter author indicates an important study, Bowling Alone, in which Robert Putnam argues that there has been a process of civic disengagement. The family, sex and sexuality are debated in chapter 5: "Although the traditional family -structured around a male breadwinner and a "stay-at-home" mother - is sometimes represented as social norms, it is instead a function of particular periods and circumstances...... social behavior have had a more conservative character." "African-Americans" , "Latinos", "Asian-pacific-Americans", "Whites', 'language", "Balkanization", are main subtitles of chapter 6 which and the writer examines the role of ethnicity, race, and other social cleavages. He talks about America as a multicultural and fragmented society. Chapter 7 examines the differences between the regions and the degree to which the US is - in the words of the Pledge of Allegiance - "one nation indivisible". The author argues that although some have asserted that economic and political processes have created a centraliseded nation, regional differences can still be discerned and adds that other factors - most notably mass immigration and the processes of both industrialization and deindustrialization - also have shaped the contemporary regional structure. Finally, the last chapter has been devoted to the September 11 attacks on twin towers of the World Trade Center and Pentagon in New York and Washington DC. Also, there is some about other consequences most notably the degree of political consensus. American society today considers these debates and assesses the different perspectives that have been put forward.

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Issues

Abortion We can say that, the abortion debate is one of most important issues in the United States. The reason is that the debate is upon the right to life. Another important point of this issue is that this is an issue merely about women. This doesn’t mean that men don’t have any engagement in this issue, but it means that, women should choose and decide about this issue. Abortion can be studied in several perspectives: religion, women's right, hygiene. In some religious principles, abortion is considered as a kind of murder that threatens the fetus. In this view, mothers can not have abortions unless their health at stake. Women' right advocator, believe that, it is an absolute right of women to choose whether to have an abortion or not. In the healthy perspective, there are some debates that if the fetus is deformed, or if childbirth threatens the life of the mother, mothers can have an abortion. In the U.S In 1973 the Supreme Court passed Roe v. Wade. According to this decision, a woman has the right to have abortion. But this right is not determined. This idea divides pregnancy of women into three parts, called trimesters. In the first three month, a woman can decide whether to have abortion or no. But in the second and third three months, this decision is made by a state. As I have worked on the result of the election of Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama, their viewpoints about abortion will be referred in this part. Hillary Rodham Clinton on abortion: In 2003, as a senator, she was among those who voted against a bill which forbidden a late-term abortion procedure. Opponents to this bill called it "partial-birth" abortion. In her stance on this issue, she has supported abortion and has said that if she will be chosen as the president, she would nominate Supreme Court judges who support precedents such as Roe v. Wade, and who agree that a right to privacy is declared in the Constitution. She doesn't agree with a constitutional amendment or federal law banning abortion. Clinton has tried to court abortion opponents by saying she favors government policies that would reduce unintended pregnancies and make abortions rare. Barack Obama on abortion: His stance on abortion suggests that a woman has the right to decide how many children to have. Like Clinton, he also opposes Constitutional amendment or federal law banning abortion. In a meeting which was held in July, he declared that he would appoint Supreme Court nominees who support Roe v. Wade. " With one more vacancy on the court, we could be looking at a majority hostile to a woman's fundamental right to choose for the first time since Roe v. Wade, and that is what is at stake in this election", Obama said. Moreover, he believes in fundamental changes about abortion in the White House and in the Supreme Court.

Review of Dead Man

Cast: Johnny Depp, Gary Farmer, Lance Henriksen, Micheal Wincott, Eugene Byrd Director: Jim Jarmusch Writer: Jim Jarmusch Language: English Genre: Drama, Western Release Year:1996 Awards: 2 wins & 5 nominations Color: white and black William Blake(not the famous poet) travels to town of machine in the West from Cleveland to get a promised job as an accountant. When he arrives to the town, he finds that one month ago another person has filled the job. Blake that spent all money after death of his parents to get there, get angry and wants to meet the mill owner (Robert Mitchum)who in his office and talks with a stuffed bear and keeps a portrait of himself in his room. He threat Blake with a gun and advises him to leave the town. That night Blake meets a girl who sells paper flowers and befriends her and is invited to her room. Blake kills her ex-lover who is Charlie Dickinson (Gabriel Byrne) in a self defense; he is Dickinson's son, the mill owner. Then Blake is pursued by Dickinson's men and became a wanted man. Next morning he sees himself beside an Indian, Nobody, (Gary Farmer). Nobody guides Blake to a spiritual journey to where he belongs to. Jarmusch's film, Dead Man, is a film in western genre. But we can say that it is an iconoclasm in this genre. The "Dead Man "does not apply to western stereotypes. West in Dead Man isn't romantic. Probably Jarmusch tries to say that outcomes of industrialization have destroyed nature and moralities in the west.In the film we can also see some points about Indians and white immigrant's treatment with them. One example is the narratives of Nobody about his life- white men move him from his home to several countries- and then in his dialogs with Blake, Nobody says in the station where whites have trade with Indians, they sell blanket which have smallpox that will sicken all Indian villagers. The machine town which black arrives in is a corrupt, mucky and unsightly. It is the first view of the west from Blake's eyes. Some sequences in the film which show direct violence are vexing and disgusting. For example the sequence where Cole Wilson after killing his co-worker eats his hand, or the scene where hired killer Cole Wilson crushes a corpse's head under his boot.On the technical side, Robby Muller has shot the film in black and white. The music of film isn't a usual Western music, but it's certainly effective. Like the film itself, it's liable to be an acquired taste.

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Review of Transnational America: Contours of Modern US Transnational America: Contours of Modern US Culture is an editorial book including 13 essays by different individuals plus a completely illustrated one named photo essay in the work, edited by Russell Duncan and Clara Juncker। Museum Tusculanum Press has published it in 276 pages paperback with ISBN 8772899581 on 2004 in Copenhagen. Contributors in this one volume editorial are experts in various disciplines mostly English Literature and American Studies. The work categorized in 5 major categories: 1- Visions and Revisions 2- Secrets and Lies 3- Photo Essay 4- New People 5- New Places, which each one subcategorizes to a few essays. This book has a pro-American structure, and tries to introduce America as a transpattern and even an Archetype which all other nations and states must follow from its nation-state pattern. Many countries are consciously or unconsciously go after it, and its taste and scent can be sensed in rest of the world. That’s why it’s called Transnational America. In fact editors believe in an alliteration of Trans in everything related to America as it’s depicted in editors’ introduction: “A transatlantic voyage can discover a new continent or start new lives, and a transcontinental exploration can give rise to Manifest Destiny. Pioneers can transverse frontiers to build a nation. To transmigrate is to travel through one country on the way to a more permanent resting place. Slaves are transported; immigrants make transitions; people are transformed. Transactions are necessary to property acquisition. Translators mediate among languages. Hopes are transmitted; communities are transplanted; nations are transfigured. Media producers transcribe programs for broadcast. Employees are transferred to regional for international offices.” It can be said -In deed- the book tries to normalize the trans-Naturalization concept. “The editors commissioned articles that explain the contours of the ‘glocal’ (global and local) and ‘intermestic’ (international and domestic) tendencies involved in transnational America.” The language of the work is not too complicated but to some extent sophisticated, editors intend to deliver their minds by coining new words using blending method which can be a sign and metaphor of interdisciplinary approach of the book per se. “They address the complex issues of globalization, American mythology, Christian proselytizing, modern slavery, conspiracy theory, apocalyptic terrorism, Vietnam stories, international feminism, changing gender roles, resurgent regionalism, Hillary Clinton, Muhammad Ali, Latinos, and the changing definitions of place-be they in Hungary, Nigeria, Estonia, the American South or Canadian cities. As the word enters America, so America enters the world, unfettered by territorial boundaries, and experiencing ambivalent reactions of acceptance and resistance.” It’s really hard to label it as unique, but undoubtedly it’s a great work for those who are new comers in Americaology and Globalizationology. Popular culture is smelled in the whole; examples, similes and metaphors to different Hollywood motion pictures give a subtle abstract interactive mood to work. Nonetheless it has a unique part, and it’s the photo essay. 14 Dazzling photos which may represents 14 essays of the work. A well expert eye obviously can find a lot and even more in each; ‘Naturalization’, ‘Mc Donaldization’, American Surreallization, Presidential Exceptionalization, American Spherialization, 9/11ization, Conspiring Terrorization, American jigsawization, Phallicist Feminization, Negro-Islam Americanization, Economical Novelization, Mexico-America Hybridization, Amerinadaization, un-American assimilation; are probable conceptualized nominations which I dare to put on them, and of course all are coined by me save in quotation marks. I really recommend everyone who is interested in book and is in lack of time for whole reading even though skipping the rest live a quarter with this photo essay which has a encyclopedic essence. As it is asserted in the book for American Understanding various notions and concepts must be taken into account; ‘nationalism’, ‘racism’, ‘manhood’, ‘Christianity’, ‘globalization’, ‘immigration’, ‘classic-democratic roots’, ‘militarism’, ‘technology’, ‘advertising banners’, ‘youth’, ‘future’, ‘progress’ and ‘frontier’ are issues which are reviewed in this work, so paves the way for American Understanding. But some other points are neglected in this work if so they are being concerned as modern US culture elements too; Hip Hop music, same sex marriage, new concept of Stew as successor of Melting Pot, Voluntarism, Democratization of the World and pre-emption. Nevertheless it enlightens new horizons in watching America as an insider even out of it.

The message to the European peoples In a fresh audio tape released on Thursday night (November 29), al Qaede chief Osama bin laden has called on Europeans to stop supporting the us in its invasion of Afghanistan . The new audio tape – released by the Arabic TV news channel Al Jazeera – contains a voice resembling that of laden though independent authorities could not confirm this. In the tape, Osama stresses thet he alone was behind the 9/11 attacks and that the Afghans had nothing to do with the attack. He said the US 'insisted on invading ' Afghanistan despite knowing this fact well. More importantly, the audio tape criticised Europe for playing 'subordinate' to Washington's whims. Al-Jazeera aired two brief portions of a few seconds each of the audiotape, titled "message to the European peoples," which al-Qaeda had announced several days ago that it would release soon.the rest of the message – the fourth by the al-Qaeda leader this year – was not known.US State Department spokesman McCormack brushed off the purported bin laden remarks, saying the comments are "not a new tactic." McCormack told a news conference in Washington that neither the US nor its European allies will reduce its commitment in Afghanistan। "I think our NATO allies understand quite clearly what is at stake in Afghanistan as well as elsewhere around the world in fighting the war on terror,"he said।

About bin laden:

Osama bin laden was born in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on 10 March 1957.He is a militant Islamist and the founder of the terrorist organization called al-Qaeda. He is the member of the prestigious and wealthy bin laden family. In conjunction with several other Islamic militant leaders, bin laden issued two fatwas -in 1996 and again in 1998- that Muslims should kill civilians and military personnel from the United States and allied countries until they remove support for Israel and remove military forces from Islamic countries. He has been indicted in United States federal court for his alleged involvement in the 1998 US embassy bombings in Dare s Salaam Tanzania and Nairobi, Kenya, and is on the US.Federal Bureau of Investigation 's Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list. Although bin laden has not indicated for the September 11,2001 attacks, he has claimed responsibility for them in videos released to the public। Nowadys is conceived that he leads in frontier between afghanistan and pakistan.

Other video tapes from bin laden:

On 6 September 2007, bin laden's image was posted at a banner advertisement on an Islamic militant web site (where al-Qaeda's media arm, Al-Sahab posts messages)। In the image, bin laden's beard had been dyed ( a popular practice among Arab leaders ). Al-Sahab said that bin laden will release a new video ahead of the 6th anniversary of the 11 September attacks. The video was released on 7 September 2001.

This time in this tape in which bin laden has left message and menaced Europeans to stop supporting the US in its invasion of Afghanistan, goal of laden is Europe। After the attacks on New York is Thought that Europeans should pay attention to this menaces। They should not pay attention like the US ; McCormack: "I think out NATO allies understand clearly what is at stake in Afghanistan as well as elsewhere around the world in fighting the war on terror "

http://www.adl.org/default.htm http://stagingserver/NewsDtls.aspx?NewsID=4568 ^ Wanted: Usama Bin Laden. Interpol. Retrieved on 2006-05-15. ^ BIN LADEN'S FATWA ^ Online NewsHour: Al Qaeda's 1998 Fatwa. PBS. Retrieved on 2006-08-21. Further links: Terrorism Main Page Video excerpts from December 1998 ABC News interview with bin Laden